BUILDING MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION- II

YEAR -   3rd
(ARCH. ASSTT.)

Building material is any material which is use for  construction  purposes.  Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, and wood, even twigs and leaves, have been used to construct buildings. The manufacturing of building materials is an established industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific specialty trades, such as carpentry, insulation, plumbing, and roofing work.
. Limestone
1.	Classification: Sedimentary rock of calcareous variety.
2.	Composition: Pure state contains CaCO3 but frequently mixed with MgCO3 and small amount of silica and alumina. Limestones containing 10% or more of magnesia are called as magnesian and those having over 45% of it are termed as dolomites.
3.	Characteristics:
•	Specific gravity = 2.6
•	Crushing strength = 52 MN/m2
Uses:	
•	in blast furnaces, bleaching and tanning industries
•	for stone masonry for walls and paving set in floors
•	for manufacturing lime and cement
•	quarry waste is used as road metal

Types of lime – 

1) Fat lime – It is obtained by the calcination of pure limestone, marble, white chalk etc.
 Properties – .
a)	It hardens very slowly. 
b)	 It has high degree of plasticity .
c)	 Its setting time is slow .
d)	 Its colour is perfectly white .
2) Hydraulic lime – It is obtained by moderate burning of raw limestone which contain small amount of clay & iron oxide.
 Properties –
               a) It sets under water.
                b) Its colour is not perfectly white.
                c) It forms thin paste. 

3) Poor lime –
It is obtained from limestone which contains 80-85&CaO& 5% MgO       with clay, silica, alumina& iron oxide.
 Properties –
 a) It sets very slowly
 b) It has poor binding properties 
c) Its colour is muddy white 
 d) It makes very poor mortar 
Properties of lime – 
1) Lime possesses good plasticity properties
2) It stiffens easily 	
3) It has excellent cementing properties.
4) It shrinks on drying 
Uses of lime –
 1) It is used for white washing
 2) It is also used for preparation of lime sand bricks
 3) It is also used as mortar in mensory works
 4) It is used as refractory materials 
                                                                                                                             Properties of Lime:-
Lime is considered one of the important building material because of following properties.
  (i) It is easily workable.
  (ii) It has good plastic properties.
  (iii) It can withstand moisture well.
  (iv) It imparts sufficient strength to the masonry when used as mortar.
  (v) It stiffens quite easily in short span of time.
  (vi) Masonry in lime mortar is more durable because of its comparatively low shrinkage on drying.
  (vii) It has good adhering properties with stone bricks both.

Uses of Lime:-
The lime can be used extensively for the following purposes :
  (i) It can be used as a binding material in mortar.
  (ii) It can be used as a binding material in concrete.
  (iii) Crushed lime is used in the form of an aggregate.
  (iv) It is used for plastering.
  (v) It is used for white washing and also as a base coat for distempers.
  (vi) It is used for preparing lime-sand bricks.
  (vii) It is also used in many manufacturing process as a fluxing material.
  (viii) It finds use in masonry work in the form of limestone.
  (ix) It is also a component of refractory clay.
  (x) It is used for soil stabilization.
  (xi) It is used for improving soils for agricultural purposes.
  (xii) It is used for water purification and sewage treatment works.
  (xiii) Cement and Lime can be used in combination to save a certain percentage of cement.
  (xiv) It sometimes finds use in paints also.
  (xv) It is used for the manufacture of glass.
 Cement: - 
         It is a material, which is produced by calcining an intimate mixture of calcareous,                                          siliceous and aluminous substances at high temperature and crushing the resultant              clinkers to a fine powder.
                                                                                                                                                                       Ordinary Portland cement:
1) It is used in important structures, where great strength is required such as heavy buildings and bridges etc.
2) It is used for plastering and painting.
3) It is used for drainage & water supply works.
4) It is used for making cement mortar, plain concrete, reinforced concrete etc.
 White cement: Preparation & Uses
1) The cement when made free from colouring oxides of Fe, Mn and Cr, it results into white cement.
2) In the manufacturing of this cement, the oil fuel is used instead of coal for burning.
Uses -
1) It is used for floor finishing.
2) It is used for ornamental works.
3) It is used for plastering.
4) In swimming ponds white cement is used to replace glazed tiles. It is used for fixing marbles and glazed tiles. 
Coloured cement: Preparation & Uses
1) The cement of desired colour is produced by intimately mixing pigments with ordinary cement.
2) The chromium oxide (CrO4) gives green colour. Cobalt produce blue colour.
3) Iron oxide (Fe2O3) with different proportion produce brown, red or yellow colour.
4) Addition of manganese dioxide (MnO2) gives black or brown coloured cement.
Uses -
1) It is used for finishing of floors.
2) It is used for painting.
3) It is used for finishing of walls, roofs and window sills.
Important properties of good cement:
1) It gives strength to the masonry.
2) It is an excellent binding material.
3) It is easily workable.
4) It has good resistance to the moisture.
5) It possesses a good plasticity.
6) It solidifies or hardens quickly.
7) It is fire proof. 
Aggregates -
Aggregates are divided into following two categories on the basis of size;
1) Coarse aggregates: The aggregates having size greater than 4.75 mm are called as coarse aggregates.
2) Fine aggregates: The aggregates having size 4.75 mm or less are called as fine aggregates    
Mortars:-  
 The workable past prepared by mixing a binding material, fine aggregate and water in  suitable proportions is called mortar.
 Function of mortars:-
                                   Following are the  function of a  mortar 
1	To  bind together the brick or  stone property so as to provide strength to the structure.
2	To form a homogeneous mass of  a structure so as to  resist all the lords coming over its  without disintegration and transfer the same uniformly to its foundation lying underneath.
3	 To provide a weather resisting or a durable layer between the different course of masonry in the structure 
4	The  hold coarse aggregates together  in any concrete so as to form a solid mass the mortar use in a concrete is termed as matrix. 
5	To do painting or plastering to the structure the mortar  use for plastering is know as a plaster.
6	To fill up  empty joint in brick masonry and stone masonry the mortar used for such purpose is a thin liquid mortar which is termed as grout. 

Cement Mortar: 

 In cement mortar, the cement is used as binding materials.  Depending upon the strength required and importance of work, the proportion of cement to sand by volume varies from 1:2 to 1:6 or more. 

 The proportion of cement with respect to sand should be determined with due regard to the spe
cified durability and working conditions. 
 The cement mortar is used where a mortar of high strength and water-resisting properties if required such as underground constructions, water saturated soils, etc. 

Properties of cement mortar:
1) It is more durable.
2) It hardens very quickly.
3) A well proportioned mortar provides impervious surface.
4) A mix richer than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage. 

Lime mortar :-
 In time mortar the lime is used as binding material. The lime may be fat lime or hydraulic lime may be fat lime or hydraulic lime. 
 The lime mortar has a high plasticity and it can be placed easily. 
 It possesses good cohesiveness with other surfaces and shrinks very little. It is sufficiently durable, but it hardens slowly. 
 It is generally used for lightly loaded above-ground parts of buildings.                                            

Properties of lime mortar: 
1) It shrinks very little. 
2) It is durable. 
3) It hardens slowly. 
4) It has a high plasticity and can be placed easily. 
5) It possesses good cohesiveness with other surfaces. 
Uses of cement mortar:-
                                                 These mortar generally used for all engineering works where high strength is desired and which are subjected to wet conditions such as pier  load bearing wall, deep foundation,  dams, canal linings, pointing or plastering of external wall of the structure, flooring etc.
 
Uses of lime mortar:-
                                            This type is lime mortar is used for construction work of thin wall above ground level and for plastering internal surface of wall when this mortar is to be used for thick used wall its quality may be improve be adding or  cement in addition   to lime.
Preparation of cement mortars:-
                                                                    Cement mortar  can be  prepared by the following methods:-
Hand mixing :-
                            This method is generally  adopted when a small quantity of   mortar is required at a time  in this method first of all a non  porous platform is prepared near the  site of works 
Machine mixing  -
                                            This  method  is used when large quantity of the mortar is required at a fast rate  in this method mixing of a mortar is a done in a machine which is know as a machine mixing. 
Preparation of a lime mortar – 
                                                          lime mortar and surkhi mortars  are prepared by grinding the ingredients in a specified  manner. The purpose of grinding is to slake the unslaked particles of lime and make the intimates mixture  of sand and lime so that every particles of aggregates is covered uniformly with the comenting material.   
Concrete :-
                            An artificial stone resulting from hardening of a mixture of a binding material, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and water in suitable proportions is called concrete. 

Workability  of concrete:-
                                       The ease with witch the concrete can flow to the remotest corner  of the  formwork and the compact without losing its cohesiveness is called workability of concrete. 
Water cement ratio:- 
                                      The ratio is minimum quantity of water to the volume or weight of cement required to obtain the desired consistency and workability of a  concrete mix is called water cement ratio (W.C.R. ).
Compaction of concrete:-
                                                        The process of consolidating concrete after placing it in position is called compaction of concrete.
Curing  of concrte:-
                                           The process of keeping the concrete moist for a certain period after its finishing is called curing of concrete.
Placing of concrete:-
                                             The process of depositing the concrete  in its required position is called placing of concrete. 

Reinforced cement concrete:-
When steel reinforcement is used in structure along with cement concrete, it is called reiforced cement concrete structure. concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension hence, tension is taken by steel reinforcement. Steel reinforcement is used to resist primarily tension, shear ,torsion. sometimes designed to resist compression.
Properties of R.C.C:-
1. It should be capable of resisting expected tensile, compressive, bending and shear forces.
2. It should not show excessive deflection and spoil serviceability requirement.
3. There should be proper cover to the reinforcement, so that the corrossion is prevented.
4. The hair cracks developed should be within the permissible limit.
5. It is a good fire resistant material.
6. When it is fresh, it can be moulded to any desired shape and size.
7. Durability is very good.
8. R.C.C. structure can be designed to take any load.
Ready mix concrete:- 
                                                          Ready Mixed Concrete is a tailor – made concrete that is manufactured in a factory or within a batching plant based on the standard required specifications. The prepared concrete mix is then taken to the work site within transit mixers mounted over a truck.
Timber –
It is refers to wood which is used for the construction works.
 Used as a construction materials: Advantages of timber as a construction material –
1) Timber can be easily handled, pained & joined with simple tools of carpenter.
2) It has a massive appearance for the heavy constructions.
3) It is quite durable if properly protected against moisture, rain, insects etc
4) It is easy to provide the connections in the timber construction. Uses of timbers as a construction material –
1) It is used for making doors & windows
2) Also used for making furniture & sport goods.
3) For roofing material 
4) Making railway sleepers 
5) It also used as frame work & centering materials 
6) It is also used for construction of temporary bridges. 
7) It is also used for engraving works 
8) It is used for making small houses at a place of heavy snowfall 

Sal:-
It is hard, fibrous and close-grained. It does not take up a good polish. It requires slow and careful seasoning. It is durable under ground and water. It is used for railway sleepers, shipbuilding, and bridges.

Deodar:-
Deodar is the most important timber tree providing soft wood. It can be easily worked and it is moderately strong. It possesses distinct annual rings. It is used for making cheap furniture, railway carriages, railway sleepers, packing boxes, and structural work

Teak:-
Moderately hard, teak is durable and fire-resistant. It can be easily seasoned and worked. It takes up a good polish and is not attacked by white ants and dry rot. It does not corrode iron fastenings and it shrinks little. It is among the most valuable timber trees of the world and its use is limited to superior work only.

Characteristics of hard wood and soft wood:-
                                                                                                 Classifying wood as either a hardwood or softwood comes down to its physical structure and makeup, and so it is overly simple to think of hardwoods as being hard and durable compared to soft and workable softwoods. This happens to be generally true, but there are exceptions, such as in the cases of wood from yew trees — a softwood that is relatively hard — and wood from balsa trees — a hardwood that is softer than softwoods.
                                                             Hardwood comes from angiosperm — or flowering plants — such as oak, maple, or walnut, that are not monocots. Softwood comes from gymnospermtrees, usually evergreen conifers, like pine or spruce.

Defects in timber 
1) Natural defects – These defects may be in the form of knots, twisted fibers, ring shakes, rupture etc 
2) Defects due to conversion–These defects are formed due to improper seasoning are radial shakes, case hardening, twisted, bowing, honey combing etc 

3) Defects formed due to insects – In this defect wood is attacked by termites, insects, beetles, stem borers etc 
4) Defects formed due to fungal action – In this defect wood is infected by fungal attack which reduces the strength of wood. 
5) Defects due to seasoning – These are in the form of warp, cup, bow, twist etc. 
Characterstics of good timber:-
                                     Good timber should have the following qualities
1. HARDNESS:-   
A good quality timber should be hard enough to resist deterioration.
2. STRENGTH
It should have sufficient strength to resist heavy structural loads.
3. TOUGHNESS
It should have enough toughness to resist shocks due to vibrations. It should not break in bending and should resist splitting. Timbers having narrow annual rings, are generally the strongest.
4. ELASTICITY
It should have the property of elasticity so as to regain its original shape after removal of loads. This is a very important property to be considered if the timber is used in making sport goods.
5. DURABILITY
It should be able to resist attacks of fungi and worms and also atmospheric effects for a longer period of time.
6. DEFECTS
Timber should be prepared from the heart of a sound tree and be free from sap, dead knots, shakes and other similar defects.
7. FIBRES AND STRUCTURE
It should have straight and closed fibres and compact medullary rays. It should give a clear ringing sound when struck. Dull heavy sound is an indication of internal decay. Its annual rings should be uniform in shape and colour.
8. APPEARANCE AND COLOUR
Freshly cut surface should give sweet smell and present shining surface. It should have dark colour, as light colored timbers are generally weak in strength.
9. SHAPE AND WEIGHT
It should retain its shape during the process of seasoning. Heavy timbers are always stronger than light weight timbers.
10. WORKABILITY
It should be well seasoned and easily workable. Teeth of saw should not get clogged during the process of sawing. It should provide smoothened surface easily.

Seasoning of timber
Seasoning of timber is classified by two ways;
1) Natural seasoning – It may air seasoning / water seasoning.
a) Air seasoning is carried out in a shed with a platform.
b) Water seasoning is carried out on the bank of the river. 
2) Artificial seasoning –
Artificial seasoning is followed by following steps;
a) Boiling – In this method, the timber is dipped in water & then boiled the water for 3 to 4 hours & dried slowly.
b) Kiln seasoning – In this method The drying of timber is carried out inside an air tight oven
c) Chemical seasoning – In this method Timber is dipped in the suitable salts solutions & taken out for ordinary drying.
d) Electrical seasoning – In this method of seasoning a high frequency alternating currents are used. 

Preservation of timber:-
Preservation of timber is carried out to increase the life of timber. Preservation is done using different types of preservatives. Methods and different materials used for preservation of timber is discussed.
                                  Increasing life makes timber more durable and it can be used for longer periods. Preservation also helps the timber to get rid of insects and fungi etc. If preservation is not done, then wood will be diseased.
Coal Tar for Preservation of Timber
Coal tar is heated and obtained liquid hot tar is applied on timber surface using brush. Coal tar contains unpleasant smell and does not allow paint on it.
So, it is used for door frames, window frames etc. It is very cheap and has good fire resistance.
ASCU Preservative for Timber
ASCU is a special preservative which is available in powder form. It is dissolved in water to get preservative solution.
It should be added 6 parts by weight of ASCU in 100 parts by weight of water. The final solution is applied on timber by spraying. This solution does not contain any odor. It is useful mainly to get rid of from white ants.
ASCU contains hydrated arsenic pent oxide, copper sulphate or blue vitriol and sodium dichromate or potassium dichromate in it. After applying ASCU, the timber can be coated with paint, varnished etc.
Chemical Slats for Preservation of Timber
Chemical salts like copper sulphate, mercury chloride and zinc chloride are used as preservative which can be dissolved in water to get liquid solution. They are odorless and do not generate flames when contact with fire.
Oil Paints Preservatives for Timber
Oil paints are suitable for well-seasoned wood. They are generally applied in 2 or 3 coats. Oil paints prevents timber from moisture. If timber is not seasoned, then oil paints may lead to decay of timber by confining sap.
Solignum Paints for Preservation of Timber
Solignum paints are applied in hot condition using brush. They are well suitable for preserving timber from white ants. Solignum paints can be used by adding color pigments so, the timber has good appearance.
Creosote Oil for Preservation of Timber
Creosote oil is prepared by the distillation of tar. It is black or brown in color. It contains unpleasant smell. It is applied in a special manner.
Firstly, the timber is well seasoned and dried. Then, it is placed in airtight chamber and inside air is pumped out. Finally creosote oil is pumped into the chamber with high pressure about 0.7 to 1 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50oC.
After allowing it for 2 hours, the timber absorbs creosote oil sufficiently and taken out from the chamber.
Creosote oil is flammable so, it is not used for timber works in fireplaces. It is generally used for wood piles, poles, railway sleepers etc.
                                                 Glass
Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide (CaO), also called lime, and several minor additives. 
   TYPES OF GLASS
.Annealed Glass.Heat Strengthen Glass
Fully Tempered Glass
Laminated Glass
Insulated Glass
Low-iron/ Extra Clear Glass
Coated
Decorative Glass 
Plate glass, flat glass or sheet glass is a type of glass, initially produced in plane form, commonly used for windows, glass doors, transparent walls, and windscreens. For modern architectural and automotive applications, the flat glass is sometimes bent after production of the plane sheet. Flat glass stands in contrast to container glass (used for bottles, jars, cups) and glass fibre (used for thermal insulation, in fibreglass composites, and optical communication). 

Laminated glass
Laminated glass is composed layers of glass and plastic held together by an interlayer.When laminated glass is broken, it is held in place by an interlayer, typically of polyvinyl butyral (PVB), between its two or more layers of glass, which crumble into small pieces. The interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded even when broken, and its toughening prevents the glass from breaking up into large sharp pieces.This produces a characteristic "spider web" cracking pattern (radial and concentric cracks) when the impact is not enough to completely pierce the glass.
Stained glass

The term stained glass can refer to coloured glass as a material or to works created from it. Throughout its thousand-year history, the term has been applied almost exclusively to the windows of churches and other significant religious buildings. Although traditionally made in flat panels and used as windows, the creations of modern stained glass artists also include three-dimensional structures and sculpture. Modern vernacular usage has often extended the term "stained glass" to include domestic leadlight and objets d'art created from came glasswork exemplified in the famous lamps of Louis Comfort Tiffany. 
Float glass
Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating molten glass on a bed of molten metal, typically tin, although lead and various low melting point alloys were used in the past. This method gives the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces.
Glass etching
Glass etching comprises the techniques of creating art on the surface of glass by applying acidic, caustic, or abrasive substances. Traditionally this is done after the glass is blown or cast, although mold-etching has replaced some forms of surface etching. The removal of minute amounts of glass causes the characteristic rough surface and translucent quality of frosted glass. 
FIBRE GLASS
Fiberglass (US) or fibreglass (UK) is a common type of fiber-reinforced plastic using glass fiber. The fibers may be randomly arranged, flattened into a sheet (called a chopped strand mat), or woven into a fabric. The plastic matrix may be a thermoset polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin, or vinylester – or a thermoplastic. 
Cheaper and more flexible than carbon fiber, it is stronger than many metals by weight, and can be molded into complex shapes. Applications include aircraft, boats, automobiles, bath tubs and enclosures, swimming pools, hot tubs, septic tanks, water tanks, roofing, pipes, cladding, casts, surfboards, and external door skins. 
Other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic (GRP),[1] glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP)[2] or GFK (from German: Glasfaserverstärkter Kunststoff). Because glass fiber itself is sometimes referred to as "fiberglass", the composite is also called "fiberglass reinforced plastic". This article will adopt the convention that "fiberglass" refers to the complete glass fiber reinforced composite material, rather than only to the glass fiber within it.